The Martindale method stands out as a widely used and reliable approach for determining fabric abrasion resistance. It offers three distinct methods – determination of sample breakage, mass loss, and appearance quality change.
This article delves into the details of these three Martindale-based determination methods. Relying on China’s national standards GB/T21196.2 – 4—2007, it aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of the testing procedures, requirements, and result interpretations. By doing so, it serves as a practical guide for textile quality inspectors, enabling them to accurately and effectively apply the Martindale method in fabric abrasion resistance testing.
Textile Wear Basics
The wear of textile products is mainly manifested in the following five aspects:
- During the friction process, the fibers continuously collide with each other. The fiber segments in the yarn break due to fatigue damage, resulting in the breakage of the yarn.
- Fibers are pulled out from the fabric, causing the structure of the yarn and the fabric to loosen. Under repeated action, the fibers may be completely pulled out, resulting in the yarn becoming thinner, the fabric becoming thinner, and even disintegration.
- Fibers are cut and broken, leading to the breakage of the yarn.
- The surface of the fiber is worn, and fragments are lost from the fiber surface layer.
- Friction generates high temperatures, causing the fibers to melt or plastically deform, affecting the structure and mechanical properties of the fibers.
The morphological changes of the fabric due to wear are mainly breakage, mass loss, and appearance changes such as color change, pilling, and fuzzing.
There are various methods for testing the abrasion resistance of textile products, such as the flat abrasion method, the flex abrasion method, the edge folding abrasion method, and the composite abrasion method. The Martindale method is a type of flat abrasion method and is widely used in the abrasion resistance testing of clothing, household textiles, decorative fabrics, and furniture fabrics.
Global Standards for Martindale Testing
International Standards
- ISO12947-2—1998 “Textiles – Determination of resistance to abrasion of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 2: Determination of specimen breakdown”
- ISO12947-3—1998 “Textiles – Determination of resistance to abrasion of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 3: Determination of mass loss”
- ISO12947-4—1998 “Textiles – Determination of resistance to abrasion of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 4: Assessment of appearance change”
American ASTM Standards
- ASTM D4966 – 2010 “Fabric Abrasion Resistance Testing – Martindale Abrasion Tester”
European Union Standards
- EN ISO 12947 – 2:1998 “Textiles – Determination of abrasion resistance of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 2: Determination of specimen breakdown”
- EN ISO 12947 – 3:1998 “Textiles – Determination of resistance to abrasion of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 3: Determination of mass loss”
- EN ISO 12947 – 4:1998 “Textiles – Determination of resistance to abrasion of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 4: Assessment of appearance change”
German DIN Standards
- DIN EN ISO 12947 – 2 – 2007 “Textiles – Determination of the abrasion resistance of textiles by the Martindale method – Part 2: Determination of test breakage”
- DIN EN ISO 12947 – 3 – 2007 “Textiles – Determination of the abrasion resistance of textiles by the Martindale method – Part 3: Determination of mass loss”
- DIN EN ISO 12947 – 7 – 2007 “Textiles – Determination of the abrasion resistance of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 4: Assessment of appearance change”
British BS Standards
- BS ISO 12947.2 – 1998 “Textiles – Determination of resistance to abrasion of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 2: Determination of specimen breakdown”
- BS ISO 12947.3 – 1998 “Textiles – Determination of resistance to abrasion of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 3: Determination of mass loss”
- BS EN ISO 12947 – 4 – 1999 “Textiles – Determination of abrasion resistance of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 4: Assessment of appearance change”
Chinese National Standards
- GB/T21196.2 – 2007 “Textiles – Determination of abrasion resistance of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 2: Determination of specimen breakdown”
- GB/T21196.3 – 2007 “Textiles – Determination of resistance to abrasion of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 3: Determination of mass loss”
- GB/T21196.4 – 2007 “Textiles – Determination of resistance to abrasion of fabrics by the Martindale method – Part 4: Assessment of appearance change”
Distinctions on Martindale Global Testing Standards
The above mentioned standards are the method standards for testing the abrasion resistance of fabrics by the Martindale method issued by several influential standard-setting organizations in the world.
Among them, the European Union standards, the German Institute for Standardization standards, and the British Standards Institution standards are all identical to the ISO standards. Chinese national standards are modified versions of the ISO standards. The testing methods are basically the same as those specified in the ISO standards.
The only differences are that the scope of application of the standards is expanded to include coated fabrics, and corresponding regulations for coated fabric breakage, friction load parameters, standard abrasives, and requirements for replacing standard abrasives are added for the testing of coated fabrics.
The ASTM standard ASTM D4966 – 2010 “Fabric Abrasion Resistance Testing – Martindale Abrasion Tester” consists of two parts: the provisions for the abrasion resistance testing method and the provisions for the Martindale abrasion tester and auxiliary materials. The testing method is basically the same as ISO 12947.2 – 4, but there are slight differences in the determination of mass loss and the assessment of appearance change compared with ISO 12947.3 – 4. The end – point conditions of the test and the representation of the test results are more simplified.
Evaluating Fabric Abrasion Resistance with Martindale Method
The determination conditions for sample breakage are as follows: In woven fabrics, at least two independent yarns are completely broken; in knitted fabrics, one yarn is broken, causing a visible hole in appearance; for raised – pile or cut – pile fabrics, the surface pile is worn until the base fabric is exposed or tufts fall off; for non – woven fabrics, holes are formed due to friction, with a diameter ≥ 0.5mm; for coated fabrics, the coating part is damaged until the base fabric is exposed or flaky coatings fall off. The abrasion resistance of fabrics is generally analyzed and evaluated from three aspects: the determination of sample breakage, the determination of mass loss, and the assessment of appearance change.
- Determination of sample breakage: Under a certain load, the sample in the fixture moves in a Lissajous curve-shaped plane and rubs against the abrasive. The abrasion resistance of the fabric is determined by the total number of friction cycles when the sample breaks.
- Determination of mass loss: Under a certain load, the sample in the fixture moves in a Lissajous curve-shaped plane and rubs against the abrasive. The abrasion resistance is determined by the mass difference of the sample before and after friction at a specific number of friction cycles.
- Assessment of appearance change: Under a certain load, the sample in the fixture moves in a Lissajous – curve – shaped plane and rubs against the abrasive. The abrasion resistance of the fabric is determined by the appearance change of the sample before and after friction.
In – Depth Look at Martindale Testing Methods
Determination of Sample Breakage
This method is applicable to all textile fabrics but is not suitable for fabrics with a short wear life.
Selection of abrasives
Different standard abrasives are selected according to the characteristics of the sample. For non – coated fabrics, plain – woven wool fabric is used; for coated fabrics, No.600 water – resistant abrasive paper is used. A wool felt is used to separate the abrasive and the grinding table. After the test, check the surface of the felt. If there are stains or wear, it should be replaced in a timely manner.
Sampling method
At least 3 samples are required. Woven fabrics should include different warp and weft yarns. For jacquard fabrics or fancy weaves, they should include the characteristic parts of a complete weave. When a complete weave or pattern is large, each part can be sampled separately.
Selection of sample fixture padding
Measure the mass per unit area of the sample. If the mass per unit area of the sample ≥ 500g/m², no foam plastic padding is required. If the mass per unit area of the sample < 500g/m², a foam plastic padding should be added to the sample fixture, and the foam plastic padding should be replaced for each test.
Selection of the total effective mass of the friction load
The total effective mass of the friction load includes the mass of the holder, the stainless – steel disc, and the sample weight. According to the technical parameters provided by the Atlas M235 Martindale Abrasion and Pilling Tester, the mass of the holder is (200 ± 1)g, the mass of the stainless – steel disc is (260 ± 1)g, and the mass of the sample weight is (395 ± 2)g or (594 ± 2)g.
According to the use of the sample and fabric characteristics, there are three choices for the total effective mass of the friction load:
1) (795 ± 7)g: applicable to work clothes, furniture decorative fabrics, bed linens, and industrial fabrics;
2) (595 ± 7)g: applicable to clothing and household textiles (furniture decorative fabrics, bed linens), and non – clothing coated fabrics;
3) (198 ± 2)g: applicable to clothing coated fabrics.
Abrasive replacement cycle
For standard wool fabric, it is 50,000 cycles; for standard water – resistant abrasive paper, it is 6,000 cycles.
Inspection interval
Estimate the number of friction cycles when the sample breaks, and design an appropriate inspection interval based on this. The inspection interval is used as the observation point for the wear state of the sample surface during the fabric abrasion resistance test, and the inspection interval is a certain number of friction cycles.
Representation of test results
Determine the total number of friction cycles when each sample breaks, and use the cumulative number of friction cycles before the sample breaks as the abrasion – resistant cycles.
Determination of Mass Loss
This method is applicable to all textile fabrics but is not suitable for fabrics with a short wear life. The requirements for the selection of abrasives, sampling methods, selection of sample fixture padding, selection of the total effective mass of the friction load, and abrasive replacement cycle are the same as those for the determination of sample breakage method, and will not be repeated here.
Inspection interval
Design an appropriate inspection interval as the observation point for the wear state of the sample surface during the fabric abrasion resistance test. The inspection interval is a certain number of friction cycles. During the test, check the wear of the sample according to the set inspection interval. The test ends when the sample breaks or reaches the specified number of friction cycles. The determination of mass loss is divided into two cases: In the first case, at each inspection interval, measure the difference Δmi between the mass of the sample before the test and the mass of the sample after the wear – resistant test. In the second case, when the sample reaches the wear point, measure the difference Δm between the mass of the sample before the test and the mass of the sample after the wear – resistant test.
Test results
Using the method of determining fabric abrasion resistance – determination of mass loss, the test results include the following data:
1) The mass loss Δmi measured when reaching each inspection interval;
2) The mass loss Δm when the sample reaches the wear point, that is, when the test reaches the end – point;
3) The curve graph showing the relationship between the mass loss Δmi and the number of friction cycles;
4) The abrasion – resistant index Ai (cycles/g), and the calculation formula is:
Ai = N/Δmi
where N is the total number of friction cycles.
Assessment of Appearance Quality Change
The method of determining fabric abrasion resistance – assessment of appearance quality change is applicable to textile fabrics with a short wear life. The selection of abrasives, sampling methods, and selection of sample fixture padding are the same as those for the determination of sample breakage method, and will not be repeated here.
(1) The total effective mass of the friction load is (198 ± 2)g.
(2) Abrasive replacement cycle: Replace new foam plastic and standard abrasive for each test.
(3) Regulations for assessing the appearance change of the sample:
Note:
(1) Conduct the wear – resistant test until the surface change specified in the agreement is reached, and use the number of friction cycles as the measured value of abrasion resistance. Design an appropriate inspection interval as the observation point for the appearance change of the sample.
(2) Conduct the wear – resistant test until the number of friction cycles specified in the agreement is reached, and assess the surface change of the sample by comparing it with an untested sample of the same fabric.
Test results
Surface changes include color change, fuzzing, and pilling. If the end – point of the wear – resistant test is to reach the surface change specified in the agreement, the inspection agreement should specify the degree grades of color change, fuzzing, and pilling of the sample surface.
The test results are expressed by the number of friction cycles when the sample reaches the color change, fuzzing, and pilling degree grades specified in the inspection agreement. If the end – point of the wear – resistant test is the number of friction cycles specified in the agreement, the test results are the ratings of the color change, fuzzing, and pilling degrees of the post – test sample compared with the original sample after the wear – resistant test reaches the specified number of friction cycles.
The appearance quality change is described by the color change grade and the fuzzing and pilling grades of the post – test sample.
Crucial Influencing Factors in Martindale Abrasion Testing
The conditions for the abrasion-resistant test must be reasonably determined in fabric abrasion resistance testing, mainly including the selection of abrasives, the pressure between the abrasive and the sample, the friction track and speed, and the test environment.
Selection of Abrasives
There are many types of abrasives used in wear testers, such as metals, emery, leather, plastics, rubber, brushes, and fabrics with different compositions and shapes. Metals, emery, and standard fabrics are the most common. Different abrasives can produce different wear characteristics and affect the length of the test time and the reproducibility of the test results. Therefore, the selection of abrasives is one of the key factors determining the validity of the test results. At present, the abrasives selected by various wear testers are both single and prone to change during the test, making the results of various wear-resistance tests often incomparable and with poor reproducibility.
Some abrasives, especially emery materials, often have too strong an abrasive effect on fabrics. Although this can ensure that the sample is worn in a much shorter time than the natural life of the fabric, it is far from the actual situation where fabrics in daily use are repeatedly rubbed and slowly worn against human bodies, other fabrics, wooden products, iron products, plastics, leather, and other objects.
Therefore, the fibers worn off the sample by the instrument do not reflect the damage in daily use. It can be said that it is difficult to solve the contradiction between shortening the wear – resistant test time and making the abrasive effect as close as possible to the actual wear – and – tear effect in daily use. Currently, it is advisable to focus on ensuring the latter and sacrificing the former appropriately, such as selecting fabrics with lower hardness and milder effects or composite abrasives and lengthening the wear-resistant test time.
Selection of the Pressure between the Abrasive and the Sample
The pressure applied to the sample during the abrasion resistant test changes in direct proportion to the test results of fabric wear. Usually, when the pressure is low, it is mostly surface friction of the fabric, and its wear characteristics are closer to the actual wearing situation, but the test takes a long time. Conversely, when the pressure is too high, although the test time is short, the wear is too severe, far from the actual effect, and the test results are unstable. Since the pressure in actual wear is variable, while the test pressure is constant, the test pressure is preferably the average pressure in actual wear.
Friction Motion Track and Speed
The friction track between the abrasive and the sample in the wear tester is basically a fixed track, and the wear is also regular. However, in actual use, fabrics mostly experience irregular wear with an indeterminate track. This is another reason for the inconsistency between the wear test results and the actual wearing effect. However, if the wear trend detected by the instrument can reflect the actual wear trend of the fabric, for example, the warp – direction wear of the fabric is generally more severe, it is beneficial to reduce this inconsistency.
Friction has the nature of dynamic load. Generally, the faster the friction speed, the greater the impact. Currently, in rapid testing, there is a phenomenon of relatively high speeds, which is quite different from actual use. If the speed is too fast, on the one hand, the wear effect is too severe; on the other hand, due to the lack of buffer time, it affects the slow elastic recovery of the impact points on the fabric.
Effect of Testing Environment on Results
Different testing temperatures and humidities can affect the test results, and the impact on various fibers varies. Temperature has a relatively small impact on natural fibers, but a greater impact on synthetic fibers. This is because the initial modulus of synthetic fibers is more sensitive to temperature. The closer the temperature is to the softening point, the greater the impact, but the impact is not obvious at room temperature. Humidity has a significant impact on the abrasion resistance of viscose fibers, a certain impact on nylon, but almost no impact on polyester and acrylic fibers.
Conclusion
The Martindale method provides a comprehensive set of tools for assessing fabric abrasion resistance through the determination of sample breakage, mass loss, and appearance quality change. The variety of international, regional, and national standards ensures a degree of consistency in testing, although differences exist, especially in the case of coated fabrics. Each testing method has its own nuances, from sample preparation to result interpretation. Understanding the influencing factors such as abrasive selection, pressure, friction track, speed, and testing environment is essential for obtaining accurate and reliable results. By mastering these aspects of the Martindale method, the textile industry can produce higher – quality products that meet the diverse needs of consumers and industries alike, ensuring that fabrics not only look good but also stand the test of time.
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